MANOJ KUMAR (SHELFORD)

Saturday, March 29, 2014

GROWTH INHIBITORY IMPACT OF VITEX NEGUNDO ON
SALMONELLA  TYPHI AND PSEUDOMONAS  AERUGINOSA
.   Manoj Kumar*, Sukumar Dandapat, Amit Kumar and M. P. Sinha
.  Department  of Zoology, Ranchi University,  Ranchi  *e-mail: scholar.manojkumar@gmail.com

Abstract type: extended abstract
Abstract published in:
National Seminar on Values of Information Zoology
Abstract no. 69

Herbal medicines are gaining popularity in developing countries (Kumar et al, 2013), as the  lifestyle is becoming more andmore stressful, people are striving to stay healthy and with the rise in  cases of side effects·of synthetic medicines and evolution of multi-drug resistant (MDR) disease-causing organisms, there is an inclination towards the use of herbal medicines (Kumar et al, 2013). About 30-40 % of today's  conventional medicines come from the herbal supplements, botanicals and nutraceuticals (Kumar et al, 2013).

            Typhoid fever is a global infection caused by bacterium Salmonella typhi. The disease is  transmitted by water, milk, fruits and vegetables that are contaminated with Salmonella typhi. It may be also transmitted by healthy carriers and infected food handlers and may be carried  mechanically from feces to the food by flies. Although typhoid fever may be treated with antibiotics, the resistance of Salmonella typhi towards the antibiotics is widespread. Inrecent years there has been a rise in multi drug resistance in Salmonella typhi all over the world (Kumar et al, 2013). Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common bacterium which is known to cause disease in animals as well as humans. It is an opportunistic pathogenfo r both plant and animal (Iglewski, 1996). Inhigher plants Pseudomonas aeruginosa is known to cause soft rot (Walker et al.,, 2004). Pseudomonas aeruginosa typically infects the pulmonary tract, urinary tract, bums; wounds and is 
also known to cause blood infections (Fine et al., 1996).

The fresh leaves were collected, shade dried for 15 days, and were made to fine powder, 50 g of powder was subjected to extraction by Soxhlet extractor. The extracts were subjected to phytochemical screening, antibacterial analy­ sis was done against Salmonella typhl and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by agar disc diffusion method and broth dilution method.

The results of phytochemical analysis reveal the presence of alkaloids, tannins, saponins, phenols  and flav6hoids. Tannin content is highest in Vitex negundo (93.9 ± 2033mg/g) and phenol content is  lowest (8.1 ± 0.5 mg/g). The phytochemicals (alkaloids, phenols, tannins etc. present in the plants  are responsible for their medicinal properties (Palombo, 2006). The phenols possess redox  properties and th.us bestow antioxidant properties to the plants owning them; they act as hydrogen  donors, reducing agents and metal chelators (Cook and Samman, 1996). Flavonoids and tannins constitute the major group o(antioxidant compounds, that act as primary antioxidants or free radical scavengers Tannins, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids and sterols etc. ha e also been found  active against pathogenic bacteria (Kennedy and Wightman , 2011).

The Vitex negundo extract was found to be effective against both bacteria, with MIC equal to 5mg/ml  in broth dilution method as well as agar disc diffusion method. Zone of inhibition was 1.45 and  1.99 mm for 2.5 mg extract concentration and 3 and 4 mm for 5 mg extract concentrati on. Tannins,  alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids and sterols have been found ·to have growth inhibitory impact on  Salmonella typhi .Dandapat et al. attributed the antibacterial activity of Cinamomum tamala to phytochemical constituents (tannin, saponin, flavonoids, polyphenols and alkaloids) of the plant. Since the plant contains major phytochemicals (alkaloids, tannins, saponins, phenols and  flavonoids) which are major contents responsible for the antibacterial properties of the plants possessing them. The antibacterial activities of Vitex negundo can be attributed to the phytochemical contents, Vitexnegundo casn be used in  medicinal formulations , for eradicating Salmonella typhi and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
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Monday, March 10, 2014

PLACENTA

PLACENTA
·         The term placenta in its broadest sense refers to any region in viviparous organisms where maternal and foetal tissues of any kind are closely apposed, and serves as a site for physiological exchange between mother and foetus (Kent, 1987)
·         Placenta is a spongy mass of flesh that absorbs nutrients and oxygen from the mother’s body.
·         These nutrients and oxygen is conveyed to the developing foetus by means of umbilical cord.
·         During labour the placenta is released from the uterus, because of chemical changes that occur during the delivery, and is removed from the mother by pulling the umbilical cord.
·         The placenta is where the nutrients for the baby is located, while the umbilical cord serves as link between the bay and placenta.



Ø  The placenta from the point of view of origin consists of two parts – Foetal placenta and Maternal placenta.
Ø  The maternal placenta is furnished by single endometrium
Ø  The foetal placenta is furnished by four elements – amnion, chorion, yolk sac and allantois.
Ø  The amnion makes no direct contribution to the placenta, and hence can be discarded here.
Ø  But from the other three membrances, the chorion makes immediate contact with the endometrium.
Ø  For the formation of placenta, the chorion needs to be vascularized.
Ø  This vascularization takes place by two possible ways – via yolk sac (Chorio-vitellie placenta) and via allantois (Chorio-allantoic placenta).
Ø  Thus there are two basic types of placenta on the basis of origin
1.       Chorio-vitelline placenta (Yolk-sac placenta): found in most marsupials, the allantois remains relatively small and never makes contact with the chorion. Yolk sac becomes large and fused broadly with chorion.
2.       Chorio-allantoic or Allantoic placenta: in some marsupials (Parameles) and all eutherians, the yolk sac remains rudimentary and allantois becomes well developed and vascularized to fuse with chorion to furnish the chorion, the blood supply.

TYPES OF CHORIO-ALLANTOIC PLACENTA
On the basis of morphological characters the chorio-allantoic placenta is of following types:
1.       NON-DECIDUOUS PLACENTA (OR SEMI PLACENTA):
·         Implantation is superficial
·         The blascocyst lies in a cavity of the uterus in contact with uterine wall.
·         The intimacy of contact may be increased by formation of villi. Which penetrate into uterine wall.
·         At the time of birth when parturition (separation of foetus and its membranes from mother’s body) occurs, the chorionic villi are just drawn out from the depression in the uterus.
·         Found in pigs, cattle and other mammals.
2.       DECIDUOUS PLACENTA ( OR PLACENTA VERA): ALSO REFFERED TO AS TRUE PLACENTA
·         In this type of placenta, the intimacy between the maternal and foetal tissue is further increased.
·         The wall of uterus gets eroded to various degrees and the embryonic tissues penetrate into uterine wall.
·         During parturition, more or less extensive haemorrhage from the uterine wall takes place due to the injury to the endometrium which gets teared away during parturition.
·         The maternal tissues are expelled out of uterus and is called as DECIDUAE.
3.       CONTRA-DECIDUAE PLACENTA:
·         In parameles and talpa loss of both the maternal as well as foetal tissues take place, this type of placenta is called contra deciduate placenta. The damaged maternal and foetal tissues are absorbed in-situ by the maternal leucocytes.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION OF VILLI ON CHORIONIC SURFACE
1.       DIFFUSE PLACENTA: found in pigs, horse, lemurs: villi remains scattered all over the surface of chorion.
2.       COTYLEDONARY PLACENTA:  found in cattle, deer, sheep: villi are developed in groups or patches while the rest of surface remains smooth.
3.       ZONARY PLACENTA: found in carnivores – cat, dog etc: villi developed in from of belt or band around middle of chorionic sac.
4.       DISCOIDAL PLACENTA: found in insectivores, bats, rabbit, dear etc: villi are restricted to circular disc or plate.

5.       META DISCOIDAL PLACENTA: found in man, monkeys and apes: villi are first scattered, but later form on or two discs – monodiscoidal (in man), bidiscoidal (in monkeys and apes)

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